![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() Furthermore, much energy is stored in the ionic gradients across the plasma membrane, and the steep sodium and potassium gradients in animal cells are used to facilitate secondary transport of molecules (sugars, neurotransmitters, amino acids, metabolites) and other ions (H +, Ca 2+, Cl −). ![]() When the extracellular ionic concentrations are significantly different, it requires perpetual ion pump activity to uphold the intracellular concentrations, which are important for numerous of the cell's enzymatic functions. During the evolution of life, most living cells have maintained a similar ionic composition of their cytoplasms, including low calcium, low sodium, high potassium, and neutral pH (Mulkidjanian et al., 2012).
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